The ability to influence the behaviour of others or the course of events.
Hard power
Coercion through military force or economic pressure (sanctions).
Soft power
Attraction through culture, values and policies (Joseph Nye).
Smart power
Combining hard and soft power effectively.
Structural power
The power to shape the rules and institutions others must work within (Susan Strange).
Realism / liberalism / constructivism
Lenses that explain politics through power and security, cooperation and institutions, or ideas and identities.
Power is relational (A over B), contextual and can be held by states and non-state actors.
Types: hard, soft, smart, structural; also economic, military, cultural and digital power.
Realism: the international system is anarchic; states seek survival and power (Morgenthau, Waltz).
Liberalism: interdependence, trade, democracy and institutions make cooperation possible (Keohane, Nye).
Constructivism: interests come from shared ideas and identities; “anarchy is what states make of it” (Wendt).
Other lenses: Marxism and dependency (economic exploitation), feminism (gender and power), postcolonialism.
Worked example
Explain how South Korea uses soft power.
Culture: K-pop, films and TV dramas spread a positive image (the “Korean Wave”).
Results: tourism, exports and global goodwill.
Limit: soft power alone cannot solve its security dilemma with North Korea, where hard power and alliances matter.
Exam tip: Always name the type of power AND the actor AND the outcome: “China's economic power through the Belt and Road Initiative increases its influence in…”.
1.2Sovereignty
Key terms
Sovereignty
Supreme, independent authority over a territory and its people.
Internal sovereignty
Authority and control within a state's borders.
External sovereignty
Recognition by other states and freedom from outside interference.
Westphalian system
The system of sovereign states dating from the Peace of Westphalia (1648).
Pooled sovereignty
States share decision-making in a supranational body (e.g. the EU).
Challenges to sovereignty: globalisation and TNCs, international law and the ICC, the Responsibility to Protect (R2P, 2005), migration, cyber threats, secessionist movements.
States may choose to pool sovereignty for benefits (EU single market) and may take it back (Brexit, 2020).
Contested statehood: Taiwan, Kosovo, Palestine, Western Sahara show that recognition matters.
Failed or fragile states lack internal sovereignty (e.g. Somalia in the 1990s).
Worked example
To what extent does EU membership reduce sovereignty?
Reduces: EU law has primacy; trade policy is decided collectively.
But: states choose to join and can leave (Article 50); they keep control of tax, defence and foreign policy.
Judgment: sovereignty is pooled rather than lost.
Exam tip: Distinguish de jure (legal) from de facto (actual) sovereignty: it earns precision marks.
1.3Legitimacy
Key terms
Legitimacy
Acceptance of an authority's right to rule.
Traditional authority
Based on custom (e.g. monarchy) — Weber.
Charismatic authority
Based on a leader's personal qualities — Weber.
Legal-rational authority
Based on laws and procedures — Weber.
Output legitimacy
Earned by delivering results (security, growth).
Sources: elections, constitutions, rule of law, tradition, performance, ideology, international recognition.
Input legitimacy (fair processes, participation) vs output legitimacy (results).
Authoritarian regimes may rely on output legitimacy (e.g. China's growth) and nationalism.
International organisations also need legitimacy: e.g. criticism of the UN Security Council's five permanent members.
Legitimacy can be lost: coups, contested elections, corruption, protest movements.
Worked example
Explain why the legitimacy of the UN Security Council is contested.
The five permanent members (USA, UK, France, Russia, China) reflect 1945 power, not today's world.
The veto can block action (e.g. on Syria).
Africa and Latin America have no permanent seat; reform proposals (G4) have stalled.
Exam tip: Legitimacy is not the same as legality: an action can be legal but seen as illegitimate, and vice versa (e.g. NATO in Kosovo, 1999).
1.4Interdependence and actors
Key terms
Interdependence
Mutual reliance between actors, so that events in one place affect others.
Intergovernmental organisation (IGO)
An organisation of states (UN, WTO, AU).
Non-governmental organisation (NGO)
A non-profit group independent of governments (Amnesty International, MSF).
Multinational corporation (MNC)
A company operating in several countries.
Global governance
Rules, institutions and actors managing shared problems without a world government.